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Waveforms Attributed to the Planes Crashing Into the Towers.
The waveforms that the LDEO team attributes to the impacts of the airliners into the Twin Towers are shown in figures 1a and 1b. Although the waveforms look somewhat similar, they are sufficiently different to raise questions about LDEO's analysis. Although the cause of the two signals is similar -- the crashing of a plane, according to LDEO -- the magnitude (reflected by the amplitudes, or distribution on the vertical axis) of the two signals is different. Further, the waves generated by the two events do not have the same apparent velocity. The calculation of the propagation speeds, derived from the times measured in the graphs of Figures 1a and 1b between the origins fixed according to the corresponding crashes and the first wave arrivals –
namely, respectively 11.7 and 15.8 seconds - indicates roughly 2900 m/s for WTC1 and 2150 m/s for WTC2.
A more serious difficulty with LDEO's attribution of the waveforms to plane impacts at the Twin Towers is that even if the impacts had been considerably more energetic, these signals could not have been generated by such impacts.
The actual waves generated by the crashes had to have been deadened in the long stretches of steel before hitting the ground. Frequencies of waves generated by explosions are on the order of 1 Hertz (1 Hz, or one cycle per second) -- which is the case with the Rayleigh waves shown in figures 1a and 1b -- while those of crash impacts are above 10 Hz and are often around 100 Hz.
Furthermore, the range of the recording instruments (0.6 - 5 Hz) cited does not allow for the recording of the high-frequency waves that would be created by plane impacts. As to the theory of the oscillation of the Towers to explain these signals, as defended by Irvine (2001), it is inadequate because in such a case we would have had a "square" signal of long duration and a constant amplitude, while in actuality we observe a "bell-like" signal, representing a strong and brief explosion, which is particularly evident in the case of WTC2.
Given that it is geophysically impossible to have two different propagation speeds for two waves of the same type at the same frequency travelling the same path only a few minutes apart, one must bow to the evidence that the supposed origins of the recorded waves are incorrect, and that they are not linked to the plane crashes but to another origin.
The waveform data, far from suggesting the conclusion of LDEO that they were caused by plane impacts into the Towers, suggest instead two explosions with different time displacements from the moments of plane impact at each building. Further, the difference in the magnitude of the two signals can only be linked to differences in the volume of explosives and/or their distance from the surface.
Waveforms Attributed to the Collapse of the Towers.
While the Twin Towers had approximately the same mass, the same height and size, and the same type of internal structure (as well as essentially identical points of origin of the seismic wave-data in terms of distance to the recording station), the signals attributed to the collapses of WTC1 and WTC2, instead of being similar as one would suppose from the official thesis, are in fact very different. They differ in their form, their composition, and especially in their apparent propagation speed, as calculated from the official origin time.
In fact, the recording for WTC1 (Fig. 2a) demonstrates the three types of wave characteristic of a brief explosive source confined in a compact, solid material: a P wave with a speed of 6000 m/s, the typical value for a very consolidated crystalline or sedimentary terrain (which is the case in the bedrock of Manhattan), an S wave with a speed of 3500 m/s, and a surface wave with a speed of 1800 m/s (a Rayleigh wave).
These values match those registered from an earthquake or seismic prospecting (see for
example Kim et al. 2001). On the other hand, the recording linked to WTC2 (Fig. 2b) does not show the P or S body waves observed for WTC1 but only the surface Rayleigh wave, for which the spreading of the amplitudes over the duration is different from that of WTC1.
The propagation speed of 2125 m/s is also markedly different from that of WTC1. Further, this wave seems to be followed by a second Rayleigh wave four seconds later.
We find the same thing for WTC7 (Fig. 2c), where the calculation of the speed of the wave according to the determined origin time indicates a Rayleigh wave with a 2200 m/s speed.
Note that the amplitudes are comparable to those of the waves emitted at the time of the crashing of the airplanes into the Towers. This wave seems to be followed by a second Rayleigh wave 6 or 7 seconds later.
In the three cases, the bell-like form points to an impulsive source of energy, not percussion on the ground due to the fall of debris. The total mass and the average mass of individual building fragments were relatively small and fell to the ground over a period of more than ten seconds (which is a very long time in geophysics). Also note that the duration of a seismic signal does not tell anything about the source, in distinction from the amplitude and, particularly, the frequency.
Broadband seismic and acoustic signals will permit the most robust event identification.
Note: see quoted section below for source.
onlinelibrary.wiley.com...;jsessionid=DFF495C4025331585A8A72BC278FE92E.f04t02?v=1&t=ixa56v1h&s=f31a2c e04163b3810fb6204cf18d380631b81919
Title: CHARACTERIZATION OF MINING EXPLOSIONS AT REGIONAL DISTANCES: IMPLICATIONS WITH
THE INTERNATIONAL MONITORING SYSTEM
[63] Minin gexplosions are sources of seismic and acoustic energy that are readily observable at regional distances. There is evidence that these events will be primarily constrained to known active areas of mining. The magnitudes of these events will occasionally exceed magnitude 4 with the vast majority of events below this magnitude.
[64] Broadband seismic and acoustic signals will permit the most robust event identification. A number of different identification tools have been described that take advantage of information in a variety of frequency bands. For example, the ratio of high-frequency P energy to intermediate- and low-frequency surface waves ap- pears to identify large surface cast blasts. High-fre- quency spectral peaks indicative of delay firing are found to occur under some blasting conditions. Where these high-frequency spectral peaks do not exist, low-fre- quency spectral modulations associated with source fi- niteness can be useful. The success of discriminants depends on the interplay between the blasting practices in the mines and the regional wave propagation charac- teristics. Each region will require a tailored suite of discriminants and regional propagation path correction. By chance, or by design, some regions will be monitored at near-regional range and will need a suite of identifi- cation tools that include techniques that take full advan- tage of broadband data.
--snip--
“I thought, yes, maybe there is a seismic signal,” said Kim. “Maybe we have data to contribute. Maybe we can assist and help pin things down.”
Kim and his colleagues soon came up with precise seismic signatures of the plane impacts and building collapses that had been observed by so many eyewitnesses. The analyses helped investigators confidently interpret many details of the attacks and their consequences. They led to corrections in the reported timing of events and fed into the final narrative of the U.S. 9-11 Commission. An image of one of their seismograms is enshrined at Ground Zero in the September 11 Museum.
--snip--
Over succeeding weeks, Kim and his colleagues worked with federal investigators, the New York Fire Department, the Port Authority and others to provide seismic records that could be combined with photos, videos and eyewitness reports. Their first product, coauthored by 12 Lamont seismologists and grad students, was a November 2001 paper published by the American Geophysical Union describing the waves generated by the attacks, their potential effects, and the precise timing of each event.
The seismologists determined that the planes hit the towers at 8:46:26 and 9:02:54, give or take a few seconds. Their calculated time for the first strike was about 2 minutes earlier than had been reported by media. To make the calculation, they had to account for the 17-some seconds it would have taken for the waves to travel from the shocked towers down through their foundations and then outward through complexes of shallow crustal rocks. First, the hard schist and amphibolite of lower Manhattan; then the gneisses of upper Manhattan; on to the sandstones and shales underlying the Hudson River; and finally up through the great sill of volcanic rock that forms the towering Palisades on the river’s west bank, where Lamont sits. Much of the energy also traveled through the river itself.
The jet strikes generated seismic waves comparable to small earthquakes of magnitudes 0.9 and 0.7 respectively—probably only a small part of the total energy of the collisions. Kim believes most of it was released in fireballs and airborne shock waves. This helped explain my wife’s testimony: Intervening buildings largely blocked the waves (and her view) of the first, which she felt only weakly. For the second, she was in a direct line. The seismic waves looked quite unlike those of natural earthquakes, which originate under the surface, said Kim. These had started from above. “More like ringing a bell,” he said.
According to the seismic signals, the collapse of the south tower came at 9:59:04 and that of the north tower at 10:28:31. Some federal investigators put the times about 10 seconds earlier, but they apparently measured from when the buildings began pancaking from the top; the seismologists pinpointed when they hit bottom.
[LT : Now here they go into fairy land : if there was pancaking, then there also was a drop-hammer effect as from a pile-driving scow, and when you ever stood near a building preparation job, you have felt the immense earth tremors when that block came down on top of the wooden or concrete pile. And that's only 500 kg, half a ton.... And those sound signals travel at 5000+ m/s through steel until they hit bedrock. 47 + 246 inner and outer vertical columns that break floor by floor, do give off a very distinct seismic signal.]
The first collapse, of the south tower, generated seismic waves comparable to a magnitude 2.1 earthquake. The fall of the north tower, a half-hour later, generated the most powerful wave—corresponding to a magnitude 2.3 earthquake. This was recorded by 13 seismic stations in five states, including one at Lisbon, N.H., 266 miles away. Again, Kim calculated that most of the energy did not reach the ground as seismic waves; it was mainly used up converting steel, concrete—and human beings—to dust. He said the event greatly resembled the energy released by a pyroclastic flow, a lethal explosion of hot gases and debris running down the slopes of an exploding volcano.
--snip--
Seismogram of the crash of United Air 93 in Shanksville, with 3 components shown, BHZ, BHN and BHE.
--snip--
The nearby 7 World Trade Center came down at 5:20:33 pm, and the seismographs picked that up, too. “It was more gradual than the big towers,” said Kim. There was some speculation that this building and others nearby were fatally damaged by the earlier strong ground shaking, but the seismic analyses suggested otherwise. Modern New York structures are built to withstand much stronger natural quakes, up to magnitude 4 or 4.5.
--snip--
Later, when Kim looked back over the New York City data, something popped out that dumbfounded him. Interspersed around the plane impacts and the fall of the towers were five or six smaller seismic signals. At first he thought they were incremental collapses. But he tracked their locations to a line of sites along a formation of hard rock in northern New Jersey. He had seen these before many times: dynamite blasts at rock quarries. “I was very surprised, they were still doing it that day,” he said. “I thought they would have stopped, but they continued.”
--snip-- ..
These “Rg” waves have been studied by seismologists, and are one of the ways that seismologists can distinguish between earthquakes and explosions. See, for example:
Kafka (1990): Rg as a Depth Discriminant for Earthquakes and Explosions.
One Response to The Detective Work of Seismologists: Earthquake or Blast?
PetShopDad says: January 11, 2014 at 9:33 pm
Nice detective work, Justin. I thought Rg indicates that it’s shallow depth, which explosions typically are, but some shallow EQs have Rg.
originally posted by: neutronflux
a reply to: LaBTop
Can you even answer what size blast for the area would create recognizable seismic activity 26 miles away? In TNT equivalent pounds? With out that figure, you have no credible narrative.
originally posted by: hellobruce
originally posted by: neutronflux
a reply to: LaBTop
Can you even answer what size blast for the area would create recognizable seismic activity 26 miles away? In TNT equivalent pounds? With out that figure, you have no credible narrative.
So explosives were used at WTC 7 that created seismic activity 26 miles away, but no blast effects or noise were heard or seen at the site. They must have used hush a boom explosives, or there was no explosives used!
Title: Seismic Waves Generated by Aircraft Impacts and Building Collapses at World Trade Center, New York City.
www.ldeo.columbia.edu...
Seismic Waves in Greater New York City Area
Six stations within the greater Metropolitan New York region (Fig. 2) recorded the two tower collapses. Vertical-component records are shown in Figure 3 as a record section of distance as a function of travel time. The dotted lines indicate velocities from 1.5 to 2.5 km/s assuming prop- agation along straight paths from the WTC to the stations. Unlike signals at distant stations, the predominant waves are surface waves of short period (about 1 s) called Rg with group velocities between 2.3 and 1.5 km/s. GPD only recorded horizontal components.
Relatively simple and similar pulses with durations of about 5 to 6 s arrive at stations BRNJ, TBR and ARNY starting at a group velocity of 2.0 km/s. The paths to each of those stations from the WTC are mostly in the low-velocity sedimentary rocks of the Newark Basin (N.B. in Fig. 2), the region of low topography west of the Hudson River and southeast of that of higher topography
in the Hudson Highlands (Reading Prong). Since those paths cross the boundaries of the Basin at a high angle, the signals at those stations are relatively simple. The signals (not shown) at LSCT, a station in northwestern Connecticut, are also relatively simple, reflecting propagation over a distance of 125 km entirely within the high-velocity rocks of the Manhattan Prong (M.P. in Fig. 2). Their group velocity of about 3.0 km/s is consistent with Rg propagation in that faster, older terrain. Thus, we conclude that the pulse duration at those four stations reflects mainly that the generation of seismic energy from the collapse was delivered over 5-6 s. A portion of the pulse duration probably results from the dispersion of Rg waves